Concept
An instrumental variable is a tool used in statistical analysis to estimate causal relationships when controlled experiments are not feasible, addressing issues of endogeneity by providing a source of variation that is correlated with the explanatory variable but uncorrelated with the error term. This allows for consistent and unbiased estimation of the causal effect, assuming the instrument satisfies the relevance and exclusion restriction criteria.
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Concept
Livelock is a situation in concurrent computing where two or more processes continuously change their state in response to each other without making any progress. Unlike deadlock, where processes are stuck waiting indefinitely, livelock processes are active but unable to complete their tasks due to constant state changes.
Concept
Obstruction-free refers to a property in concurrent computing where a system guarantees progress for some operation, but not necessarily for all, under contention. It ensures that at least one thread can complete its operation in a finite number of steps, even if others are delayed or interrupted.
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