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Out-group discrimination refers to the tendency of individuals to favor members of their own group over those in different groups, often leading to prejudice and biased behavior against the latter. This phenomenon is driven by psychological, social, and cultural factors and can manifest in various forms, including stereotyping, exclusion, and systemic inequality.
Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD) is a critical factor in fiber optic communications that causes pulse broadening due to differential delays in light's polarization modes, potentially leading to signal distortion and degraded system performance. It arises from imperfections and asymmetries in the optical fiber, making it a significant challenge for high-speed, long-distance data transmission systems.
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