Chromosomal instability (CIN) refers to an increased rate of chromosomal changes within cells, leading to genetic heterogeneity and contributing to cancer progression and resistance to therapy. It is a hallmark of many cancers and involves mechanisms such as improper chromosome segregation, defective DNA repair, and aneuploidy.

Chromosomal Instability

Chromosomal instability

chromosomal changes

Genetic heterogeneity refers to the phenomenon where a single disorder, trait, or phenotype is caused by mutations in different genes, or different mutations within the same gene. This complexity can complicate diagnosis and treatment, as individuals with the same clinical presentation may have different genetic causes requiring distinct therapeutic approaches.

genetic heterogeneity

Cancer progression refers to the process by which cancer cells grow, evolve, and spread within the body, often becoming more aggressive and less responsive to treatment over time. This progression is influenced by genetic mutations, interactions with the tumor microenvironment, and the body's immune response.

cancer progression

resistance to therapy

hallmark of many cancers

improper chromosome segregation

defective DNA repair

Aneuploidy refers to the presence of an abnormal number of chromosomes in a cell, which can lead to various genetic disorders and is a hallmark of many cancers. It arises from errors in cell division and can result in conditions such as Down syndrome, Turner syndrome, and Klinefelter syndrome.

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